Critically Assess the Claims That Animals, Particularly Chimpanzees, Essay

Critically Assess the Claims That Animals, Particularly Chimpanzees, Have a Humanlike Understanding of Mental States - Essay Example This paper stresses that there are many debates between scientists over theory of mind and do animals have one? Those who are primatologists and other observors of animal behaviour term theory of mind ‘Machiavellian intelligence’, ‘metarepresentation’, ‘metcognition’, ‘mind reading’ and ‘pan’ or ‘pongo-morphism’. Now a researcher who would use the term ‘mental state attribution’ is likely to believe law-like generalisations underlie mental state ascription. This report makes a conclusion that the report states, ‘theory of attention in which organisms are subjectively connected to the world not through any particular sensory modality such as vision but rather through other (as-of-yet unspecified) behavioural indicators’. As observed, behaviour is not always valid indictor of having a theory of mind. Hence it will not be obvious to the untrained individual if or not chimps have a human like understanding of mental states. In research like povinelli’s ‘reasoning about beliefs, a human specialisation?’ a very striking point is brought up that ‘theory of mind is unique to our species, and that its original function was to provide a more abstract level of describing ancient behavioural patterns (such as deception, reconciliation, and gaze following)-behaviours that humans share in common with many other species.’ This material sheds knew light on what we thought we knew bout the human mind’ s ‘theory of mind’.

Critically discuss the application of traditional rules of offer and Essay

Critically discuss the application of traditional rules of offer and acceptance in English contract law in the context of (i) standard term contracts; and (ii) electronic communications - Essay Example Offer is referred to as an expression of desire to contract on specific terms which are made intentionally to become a binding after the person to whom it was addressed accepts it. It can also be defined as the statement of terms that the offeror is ready to be bound with. Acceptance requires that both parties should have engaged in conduct that manifests their assent in subjective perspective. The traditional approach that is applied in contract law is involves analyzing contract formation in terms of one party doing an offer and the other one accepting the offer. It has been argued by some scholars that not all contracts are analyzed in terms of offer and acceptance. They instead argue that one should focus on correspondence and the parties conduct as well as the parties’ terms of agreement Contracts which can not be analyzed in this perspective of offer and acceptance are said to be exceptional (Hedley, 230). Some critics have argued that the principles of offer and acceptance have a marginal relevance in business conduction. Different rules that are related to contract formation appear inform technical and schematic contract law. Practically, the law can adopt a fair and flexible pragmatic approach. Although most contracts are made using the offer and acceptance process, some agreements cannot be explained fully using the traditional approach. There are cases th at may proof hard to reconcile using the traditional approach and they include contract not resulting from parties’ agreement. The court may imply a contract in the bases of public policy or on the bases of expediency which makes it difficult to analyze. Generally contractual terms are settled using two methods that is by express negotiation and standard terms. English law when contrasted with other legal systems uses the analysis traditional offer and acceptance in cases of standard

Knowledgement Management Research Paper Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 500 words

Knowledgement Management - Research Paper Example 1). The meaning of the term knowledge was qualified by Baker, Baker, Thorne, & Dutnell (1997), â€Å"knowledge is present in ideas, judgments, talents, root causes, relationships, perspectives and concepts. Knowledge can be related to customers, products, processes, culture, skills, experiences and know-how† (cited in Kalpic & Bernus, 2006, p. 44). KM is therefore important to the success of the organization because through the collective shared efforts of various stakeholders, the potentials and resources of the organizations are maximized. Core competencies and strengths are capitalized to enable the organization to address risks, threats and changes in external environmental factors that would impinge on the firm’s operations. Accordingly, not only are the organizational objectives achieved; but more so, the relevant contribution of the organization’s stakeholders are thereby percieved as instrumental for the firm’s success and therefore, make each cont ributor better motivated to share their inputs towards a greater good. As noted from Kalpic & Bernus’ (2006) discourse, â€Å"Rouggles (1998), for example, found that the four most common KM projects conducted by organizations were creating/implementing an intranet, knowledge repositories, decision support tools, or groupware to support collaboration† (p. 49). The creation and implementation of an intranet is deemed crucial for organizations to access and connect volumes and diverse information through different departments and functions within the organization. This is an example of KM due to the interplay of inputs, processes and systems that need to be identified, analyzed and connected, as required. Decision-support tools are also examples of KM programs were organizational policies and procedures identify and authorize authorities to decide on significant aspects, alternatives, and options that each personnel, department, or group makes on a daily basis. The design and implementation of

Critically discuss the application of traditional rules of offer and Essay

Critically discuss the application of traditional rules of offer and acceptance in English contract law in the context of (i) standard term contracts; and (ii) electronic communications - Essay Example Offer is referred to as an expression of desire to contract on specific terms which are made intentionally to become a binding after the person to whom it was addressed accepts it. It can also be defined as the statement of terms that the offeror is ready to be bound with. Acceptance requires that both parties should have engaged in conduct that manifests their assent in subjective perspective. The traditional approach that is applied in contract law is involves analyzing contract formation in terms of one party doing an offer and the other one accepting the offer. It has been argued by some scholars that not all contracts are analyzed in terms of offer and acceptance. They instead argue that one should focus on correspondence and the parties conduct as well as the parties’ terms of agreement Contracts which can not be analyzed in this perspective of offer and acceptance are said to be exceptional (Hedley, 230). Some critics have argued that the principles of offer and acceptance have a marginal relevance in business conduction. Different rules that are related to contract formation appear inform technical and schematic contract law. Practically, the law can adopt a fair and flexible pragmatic approach. Although most contracts are made using the offer and acceptance process, some agreements cannot be explained fully using the traditional approach. There are cases th at may proof hard to reconcile using the traditional approach and they include contract not resulting from parties’ agreement. The court may imply a contract in the bases of public policy or on the bases of expediency which makes it difficult to analyze. Generally contractual terms are settled using two methods that is by express negotiation and standard terms. English law when contrasted with other legal systems uses the analysis traditional offer and acceptance in cases of standard

Food Chemistry Options Report Essay Example for Free

Food Chemistry Options Report Essay Food Chemistry What is food chemistry? Food chemistry is the application of the actual science that goes into the production, development, and actual creation of the foods we frequently consume. In reality, much more thought as well as actual science goes into the food production and consumption that we as a society divulge in so regularly. It is up to the food chemists to design the most efficient and fastest way to make and preserve both the appeal as well as the nutrition of the food. With that being said, not only must the food meet the standards of the consumers, but the chemistry behind it must also be in line with the guidelines set up by organizations such as the FDA. Perhaps the most important factor when looking into a food is its chemical composition. For example, typical lipids include phospholipids, sterols, and vitamin D which because of their structures remain soluble in organic solvents but insoluble in water. A common lipid makeup of a fatty food contains an intricate mixture of many different molecules. A large part of these lipid makeups are usually a good amount of triacylglycercols which are literally the esters of three fatty acids bonded to a glycerol molecule. Variation in fatty foods are then caused by differences in chain length, degree of unsaturation, and position on the glycerol molecule(ACS). Another prominent factor when considering the different types of fats is that the unique profile of lipids present determines the exact nutritional as well as physiochemical properties. As the discussion of food fat and oils continues, it is important to distinguish that the difference between the two is that a â€Å"fat† is a lipid that is solid at room temperature whereas an â€Å"oil† is a lipid that is liquid at that same temperature. Along with lipids, carbohydrates also have a very different chemical structure that contributes to their unique qualities. Carbohydrates exist in combinations of carbon, oxygen, and hydrogen which really shows how simple the base structure of a carbohydrate is. In the presence of animals, carbohydrates can be seen as starches whereas in plants they are most commonly noticed as cellulose. Carbohydrates can be most commonly identified in their base state as simple sugars but they can quickly combine to form complex structures as more of the simple sugars combine. A common structure for a simple sugar or monosaccharide is a carbon chain ending with a carbonyl group that also has hydroxyl groups spread out over the molecule. The main difference from some simple sugars to others is the specific orientation of the hydroxyl groups around the simple sugar chain. As the talk of lipids goes more into depth, it is important to distinguish between the different types of fat and in this case the differences between saturated and unsaturated fats. It has long been common knowledge that unsaturated fat is better for you and that saturated fat is just horrible for you but it has never really been explained at all. However, when examining into the actual chemical effects that these two fats can have, it becomes much easier to see why one would be considered so much healthier over the other. As the chemical structure of saturated fats are examined it can be seen that since the molecule is so concentrated with hydrogen atoms, there is no double bonds contained between the atoms. These saturated fats have been known to raise cholesterol levels because of the more dense fat that must be consumed. When the structures of unsaturated fats are looked at, it can be seen that there is a huge difference between its chemical structure and that of the saturated fat. This difference is shown by the presence of double bonds between some of the atoms. This presence of double bonds then shows that the atom has a much less concentrated state in comparison to the saturated fats which also explains why it remains at a liquid at room temperature instead of a more dense solid. As a result, these unsaturated fats take much less of an effort by the body to consume since they are less dense which is really what helps them in being considered so much healthier. Shelf life, the length of time a product can be stored without becoming unsuitable for use or consumption(Gyesley S. . There are many factors that go into the preserved shelf life of foods and many of which that have to do with the actual chemical composition of the food in question. These factors include the foods exposure to light, heat, water content, as well as exposures of the food to air in general which can lead to slow but actual chemical changes over time. The main problem associated with the exposure of light onto foods is how strong the affect of light can manage to be. Too much light will cause a loss in the presence of vitamins as well as the overall appearance since the excess of light can lead to a much faster deterioration of the food. There can really be a problem with the amount of water content in packaged foods today too, as that can affect the rate at which that food undergoes chemical changes however if the food comes dry and then begins to pick up moisture it can drastically change the rate at which microbial spoilage will take place. These chemical changes in the food is really what leads to the sharp decline in shelf life as well as the quality of the food and it is influenced in a very strong way by the temperature at which the food is stored. A gallon of milk left out at room temperature spawns microbial growth much faster than one that is left in the refrigerator. It is important to realize how important the preservation of food becomes after reading about how easily food can spoil. The first of these is one of the most obvious that involves storing dairy products at low temperatures which usually encompasses using a refrigerator. There are also some techniques that change the packaging such as many foods these days that are packaged in reduced oxygen. The growth of the traditional spoilage organisms can be prevented by the application of this new method at a higher rate than ever before. The use of these new packaging techniques really differs from the past when one of the most common forms of preservation in meats was to salt them very heavily. As that is now still an option, it is used way less often because of how unhealthy that has become to be considered by our society today. What is sometimes simply overlooked in foods is the appearance by which they come. Foods have color because of their ability to reflect and absorb the different wavelengths of visible light. When considering where these colors actually come from the answer usually involves one of the natural pigments of either anthocyanins or carotenoids. Anthocyanins are more commonly known to be present among plants. The colors they produce range from pink, red, and purple to blue. Carotenoids are considered to be more of a general igment as they are virtually found everywhere. These colors involve red, orange, and yellow which are typically most seen through nature. As to the presence of Anthocyanins in plants, it is important to realize that along with it comes the commonly known natural pigment of chlorophyll that is typically found in any plant that shows green. As the conversation onto the appearance of food continues, another aspect of food that would have to be considered is the texture of f oods. In liquids, one of the most common ways that is used to change texture or the look is through the process of emulsion. This involves combining two liquids that would normally be insoluble to each other by means of adding one to the other drop by drop. This process of emulsion can really be sped up by the addition of an emulsifying agent as well which allows for the two liquids to combine faster. When the actual term of â€Å"emulsifier† is used, this just describes the actual substance that allows small droplets of one liquid to become suspended into the other. In conclusion, food chemistry involves a large amount of organic and chemical structure knowledge in order to maintain and improve upon the food production and processing techniques that are already out there. Much more thought is often put into food chemistry then most people would think which shows why it is often not known or understood by the common person. However, as food development and preservation becomes even more prominent in our society today, common food chemistry knowledge should become more well known.

Effects of Ethical Conflicts in Business

Effects of Ethical Conflicts in Business Ethical Relativism or Imperialism: The Effects of Ethical Conflicts on Top Manager Behavior under Host Country Context and International Joint Venture Performance. Defined by Shenkar Zeira (1987); Ren et.al (2009), international joint ventures (IJVs) are jointly owned organizational entities by two or more legally distinct organizations, in which the headquarters of at least one is located outside the country of operation of the entity. Alliance literature suggests that the ability to bridge cultural differences is often found important to the success of IJVs and the lack of such ability is a major contributor to failure (Yan Luo, 2016). Among various dimensions of cultural differences, cross-cultural ethical conflicts have a great influence when two firms from different countries manage an IJV together, because what is considered an unacceptable practice in a Western context because core principles would be violated, may be acceptable in another because those core principles would not be violated e.g. monetary gift giving (Irwin, 2012). So, how do top managers representing partners in an IJV reconcile these ethical conflicts under certain b oundary conditions, and how does this type of reconciliation influence strategic decision-making and eventually affect IJV performance? Prior research has shown that the cultural differences between alliance partners play a pivotal role in affecting alliance performance (Boyd Webb, 2008). Culture differences between joint venture partners have usually been considered a major factor that might influence venture failure or unsatisfactory performance (Cartwright Cooper, 1993). Among various forms of alliance, IJVs are particularly susceptible to damage by cultural differences because top managers representing different cultures must work in concert to achieve mutual goals in IJVs, and the strength and success of an IJV rest on the interactions of its people (Yan Luo, 2016). Previous research has focused on cultural differences in strategic alliance from national and organizational levels (Sirmon Lane, 2004). E.g. Homburg Pflesser (2000) argue that there are various dimensions to any alliance partners organizational culture including shared values, norms and artifacts. Besides looking at analyses of national and organization levels, a few research has explored how individual level factors affect IJV performance. For example, Leung et al., (2013) argue that top management trust influences IJV performance. Yet the impact of ethical conflicts at individual level under certain boundary conditions on IJV performance remains largely undeveloped.   Do top managers representing partners in IJVs show different patterns of behavior in different countries? How do ethical conflicts affect the decision-making behavior of top managers and in turn influence IJV performance? Considering the important managerial implications, the author addresses these questions by drawing on ethical relativism theory. According to conventional ethical relativism, what is right for you as an individual depends upon what your culture thinks is right for you (Beebe, 2003). Therefore, the author contends that among top managers who hold higher standards of ethics, ethical relat ivism will be triggered under lax host country regulations, which means the managers will compromise to fit in host business context which might facilitate IJV performance. Reversely, ethical imperialism will be triggered in response to more stringent host country regulations, which means the managers will maintain high standards of ethics to avoid breach of regulations which might damage IJV performance. In this article, I strive to explore the dynamic relationship of individual level reaction of decision-making, which is elicited by ethical conflicts under host country regulations and the impact on IJV performance. By providing theoretical and practical insights, I propose that the association between cross-cultural ethical conflicts and top manager ethical relativism/imperialism is moderated by host country regulations, and the reaction of top manager decision-making will in turn influence IJV performance. I test my hypotheses by conducting a survey on top managers and their direct staff working for IJVs, formed by Sino-US firms which operate either in China or in the U.S. The contribution of this research is twofold. First, the present research contributes to the knowledge of culture differences and alliance literature at the individual level by revealing that ethical conflicts affect top manager behavior in IJVs under certain boundary conditions. Second, the present research contributes to the managerial practices considering that ethical conflicts elicit the altering of strategic decision-making of IJV top managers towards ethical relativism or ethical imperialism contingent upon how lax or stringent host country regulations are. The managerial implications of the results will help top management team members better understand the impact of ethical conflicts and the possible options when forming and managing IJVs under certain business contexts. References       Boyd, D. E. and K. L. Webb (2008). Interorganizational ethical conflict within alliances: A conceptual framework and research propositions. Journal of Business-to-Business Marketing 15(1): 1-24. Cartwright, S. and C. L. Cooper (1993). The role of culture compatibility in successful organizational marriage. The Academy of Management Executive 7(2): 57-70. Homburg, C. and C. Pflesser (2000). A multiple-layer model of market-oriented organizational culture: Measurement issues and performance outcomes. Journal of marketing research 37(4): 449-462. Irwin, J. (2012). Doing business in China: An overview of ethical aspects. UK: Institute of Business Ethics. James R. Beebe. Ethical Relativism. University at Buffalo, Copyright 2003. Pothukuchi, V., et al. (2002). National and organizational culture differences and international joint venture performance. Journal of International Business Studies 33(2): 243-265. Ren, H., et al. (2009). Performance of international joint ventures: what factors really make a difference and how? Journal of Management 35(3): 805-832. Shenkar, O. and Y. Zeira (1987). International joint ventures: Implications for organisation development. Personnel Review 16(1): 30-37. Sirmon, D. G. and P. J. Lane (2004). A model of cultural differences and international alliance performance. Journal of International Business Studies 35(4): 306-319. Yan, A. and Y. Luo (2016). International joint ventures: Theory and practice, Routledge. Wai On, L., et al. (2013). Top management team trust, behavioral integration and the performance of international joint ventures. Journal of Asia Business Studies 7(2): 99-122.

The Ambiguity of Plato Essay -- Philosophy Essays

The Ambiguity of Plato For hundreds of years, Plato has been admired as a writer, a master rhetorician, an artist, and above all, a philosopher; however, Plato's backlashes against sophistry and art have led to much confusion concerning his ideas and beliefs. John Poulakos says of Plato, "[F]or most rhetoricians Plato has always played the same role he assigned to the sophists--the enemy" (Nienkamp 1). Plato will always appear to be the skilled rhetorician or artist who speaks out against rhetoric and art. In Apology and Phaedrus we see the character of Socrates rail against writing because it can quickly get out of control of the author and just as easily be misinterpreted, yet Plato is known for his skillful dialogical writing. In reference to the Divided Line, Plato informs us that art is one of the lowest forms because it is no more than an illusion, yet Plato uses his artistic ability in "Simile of a Cave" to help us understand the journey to knowledge. This ambiguity within the texts leads to, what a ppears to be, Plato contradicting himself; however, to fully understand these contradictions we must ask ourselves, "Who is the real Plato?" Plato's contradictory nature and overall ambiguity make the lines of distinction between the writer, the rhetorician, the artist, and the philosopher become blurred, so it is difficult for anyone to understand or explain the real Plato. Jean Nienkamp says of Plato, "[He is] the writer who writes that nothing of importance can be conveyed through writing; the word-smith who argues that words are but imitations of imitations at the same time that he insists on precise definitions, divisions... " (1). In Phaedrus, Plato presents some of his more powerful arguments against writing. Most... ...1: 23-44. Plato. Euthyphro. Trans. G.M.A. Grube. Indianapolis: Hacket Publishing Company Inc., 1981: 5-22. Plato. Meno. Trans. G.M.A. Grube. Indianapolis: Hacket Publishing Company Inc., 1981: 57-88. Plato. Phaedo. Trans. G.M.A. Grube. Indianapolis: Hacket Publishing Company Inc., 1981: 89-155. Plato. Phaedrus. Trans. A. Nehamas and P. Woodruff. Amherst: Hermagoras Press, 1999: 165-213. Plato. "Simile of a Cave." The Republic. Trans. Desmond Lee. Boston: Pearson Custom Publishing, 2002: 1-9. Tejera, Victorino. "The Apology and the Phaedo: Plato's Tragic Humor." Plato's Dialogues One by One: A Dialogical Interpretation. Lanham: University Press of America, Inc., 1999. Thesleff, Holger. "In Search of Dialogue." Plato's Dialogues: New Studies and Interpretations. Ed. Gerald A. Press. Lanham: Rowan and Littlefield Publishers, Inc., 1993: 259-266.